Chloe Pleass

http://library.sandiegozoo.org/factsheets/white_rhino/white_rhino.htm

TAXONOMY & NOMENCLATURE
(Brown & Houlden 2000) (Emslie 2011) (Groves et al. 2010)(IRF, 2002) (O' Ryan & Harley, 1993)

Describer (Date): (Burchell, 1817) as Rhinoceros simus

Kingdom: Animalia
    Phylum: Chordata
        Class: Mammalia
             Order: Perissodactyla
                Suborder: Ceratomorpha (rhinos and tapirs)
                    Family: Rhinocerotidae
                           Genus: Dicerorhinus (Sumatran rhino)
                           Genus: Rhinoceros (Javan and Indian rhino)
                           Genus: Diceros (black rhino)
                            Genus: Ceratotherium (white rhino)
                                    Species: Ceratotherium simum
                                         Subspecies: C. s. simum (southern white rhino)
                                                                  C. s. cottoni (northern white rhino)

Common Names and Taxonomy

Possible origin of the name white rhino: "wiet mond" in Afrikaans means "wide mouthed" (=wide-lipped, not prehensile lipped as in the black rhino); early English settlers mistook the name "weit" for "white." Another possibility is that the first rhinos described by 19th century explorers were very light gray (almost white) due to wallowing in calcareous soil.
Other common names for white rhino: square-lipped rhino, rhinoceros blanc (Fr.), witrenoster (Gr.), Kiaru ya majani (Swah.)
Colin Groves et al. (2010) published research suggesting that northern white rhinos should be considered a separate species from the southern white rhinos, but from a conservation viewpoint they can not be realistically maintained as genetically separate with so few individuals (4 northern white rhinos at at Ol Pejeta) (Emslie 2011)

Phylogeny

See Black Rhino Fact Sheet for a description of rhino evolution

Distribution of white rhino, fromInternational Rhino Foundation.Click on map for larger image.

DISTRIBUTION & HABITAT
(Kingdon, 1997)(Emslie & Brooks, 1999)
Distribution

Historic:
- All over Africa where grasslands were present, including parts of the Sahara. Based on fossils, skeletal remains, and rock art.
- During recorded history, no evidence has been found of a continuous distribution between northern and southern subspecies.
Present: reduced to two disjunct populations, patchily distributed.

C. s. cottoni (northern white rhino): only found in Democratic Republic of Congo
C. s. simum (southern white rhino): southern continent; approximately 94% in South Africa, 4.8% in Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Kenya, and the rest in Swaziland, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia.

Habitat

Grasslands, also savannahs.
Avoid: closed forests, thick woody bushes, mesic areas with taller grass, and open plains without shade trees.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
(Kingdon, 1997)(Owen-Smith, 1973)(Schenkel, 1990)

Body Weight: females 1,800 kg (3968 lbs); males 2,300 kg (5070 lbs)
Body Length (head/body): 360 to 420 cm (142-165 in.)
Tail Length: 80 to 100 cm (31-39 in.)
Shoulder Height: 170 to 185 cm (67-73 in.)

General

Very thick, gray skin with deep folds; heavy, stocky body; short neck, large head; almost hairless (except for fringes of ears and tip of tail); Three hooved toes, central toe is largest and takes most of the weight. Two horns on the rostrum, one in front of the other.
Second largest land mammal (elephant is the largest).
Approximately the same color as the black rhino.
Differences between white and black rhinos:

White Rhino

Black Rhino

Larger; largest extant species of rhino.
High point (=crests of dorsal vertebrae) on the back is saddle area.
Long forehead
Broad, flat upper lip
Flexible neck; large bulge (nuchal hump) visible on dorsal side of the neck.
Tend to hold the head low during rest
Front edge base of anterior horn tends to be straight edged
Tracks longer; outer toes more separated from center; prominent notch along back edge.

Smaller
Height point farther back towards the pelvis
Short forehead
Pointed, prehensile upper lip
No nuchal hump
Hold head up
Front edge base of anterior horn rounded
Tracks less elongate, no back edge notch

For differences between all species of rhinos, see Black Rhino Fact Sheet.

Sexual Dimorphism

Little sexual dimorphism; males tend to be larger and may have shorter, thicker horns.
Some females have forward pointing horns.

Other Physical Characteristics

Male with backward facing genitalia (as in hippo)
Males w/o scrotum (testes abdominal)
Female with two teats
Poor eyesight; easier to discern a moving object than a stationary one; there is very little overlap in field of vision of the two eyes, limiting the forward, 3 dimensional view.
Good sense of smell and hearing

BEHAVIOR & ECOLOGY(Owen-Smith, 1973)(Pienaar, 1995)(Rachlow et al., 1999)
Activity Cycle

Most active (feeding) during early morning and late afternoon; least active (rest period) during midday; also active (alternating between eating and resting) at night.
Periods of rest and sleep both last an average of 1.5 to 3 hours, but vary with season, temperature, and cloud cover. Sleep periods can last as long as 10 hours.
Wallowing
- Wallowing in mud or laying in shallow water is common during the wet season. However, dust wallowing as seen in the black rhino, was not observed by Owen-Smith (1973).
- Most common October - March (hottest time of the year) and midday.
- Probably serves as thermoregulation and protection from ectoparasites .
- Rubbing various body parts on stumps, boulders, and bushes is commonly observed afterward, possibly to help remove ectoparasites.
Resting
- Usually rest lying down, as opposed to standing
- At night, hottest part of the day, and during prolonged periods of feeding.
- Daytime resting spots (bare ground, in the shade) are used communally by individuals who are grazing in the same area.
- Not observed to lie downwind, as seen in black rhinos.

Territory/Home Range

Females:
- Do not defend territories
- Female home range size
- At the height of the dry season, water dries up and rhinos must travel daily to more permanent water sources.
- Range size often increases with increasing population density.
- High degree of overlap with other individuals (male and female).
Territorial Males
- Male home range size:
  - Core area 0.75 - 4.2 km²(0.3 - 1.6 mi²)
  - Home range up to 14 km²(5.4 mi²) in S Africa and 50 km²(19.3 mi²) in Zimbabwe.
- Male territories do not overlap; borders are marked with urine.
- Water holes often located at boundary of several territories, like pie slices (Owen-Smith, 1973); sometimes a territorial male travels outside the territory along shared trails to water. In Krueger Natl Park, males had to cross others' territories to get to water in the dry season (Pienaar, 1995), which led to more territorial aggression.
Non-territorial Males
- Share the territory of territorial males, but do not defend it.
- One or more individuals remain in a single territory.

Social Groups

General

Territorial males defend territory. Conversely, most black rhinos are not found to be highly territorial.
The following stable (> 1 month) groupings have been observed
- Female with calf
- Female with unrelated adolescents
- Groups of adolescents
- Solitary males; occasionally pair up with adult females, but usually only lasts a day (subordinate males) or 2-3 weeks (dominant males).
Sometimes groups coalesce while foraging or resting

Aggression

Generally non aggressive towards one another. See Territory and Courtship for more details.
Less aggressive and temperamental than the black rhinoceros.

Play

Usually, only young calves play by themselves (prancing in circles or running back and forth); mother nearby.
Play with others (gentle horn jousting) usually seen in juveniles and adolescents, but also with other age classes of both sexes

Communication
Visual Signs and Displays

Horn prodding, rubbing, and clashing usually used in the context of confrontation with another individual.
Charge: by one territorial males towards another to intimidate.

Vocalizations

Snort: Keep away. Used by all except territorial males.
Snarl: ("gruff vocal roar"): Keep away. Stronger message than the snort.
Pant: A message to restore contact; between mother and young, or male and female adults.
Hic ("repetitive wheezy exhalations, with a throb produced at the initiation of each inhalation"): Male announcing his approach to a receptive female.
Squeal: To stop a female from leaving a male's territory; courtship context; produced at a territorial boundary.
Shriek: Fear. From one territorial male towards another to keep him from attacking.
Whine ("a thin mewing tone"): Distress call used by calves.
Gasp-Puff: Sudden fright

Olfaction/Scent Marking

Defecation
- Territorial males exhibit dung scraping behavior (defecate and scrape the pile vigorously with hind legs, scattering dung).
- Females, young, and non-territorial males scrape gently or not at all. In contrast, female black rhinos scrape more frequently.
- The action of defecation, or the encounter of a dung pile may stimulate other individuals to add to the pile.
- Some dung piles ('lavatories') are very large and appear to be used continuously.
Urination

Non-ritualized: by all but territorial males; steady stream of urine shooting outward, horizontal to the ground.
Ritualized: by territorial males; horn-rubbing, and leg scraping, followed by short bursts of urine sprayed backward. Behavior often repeated as male travels through his territory (territorial marking). In black rhinos ritualized urination is seen by both sexes.

Locomotion

Fairly sedentary; do not disperse rapidly.
Walking speed (i.e., towards a water-hole): 3.0 - 3.8 kg/hr (1.9-2.4 mi/hr)
Trotting speed (i.e., to escape a threat; maintained for several km): 29 km/hr (18 mi/hr)
Galloping speed (charging by adult males when provoked; short distances): up to 40 km/hr (24.8 mi/hr)
Trails

Often follow established trails to water (up to 5 km [3.1 mi] long) and, less often, to resting areas.
Probably use scent to assist in following trail. Hold head down close to ground while walking.

Interspecies Interaction

Mutualistic relationships with the oxpecker, pied crows, fork-tailed drongos, glossy starlings, and cattle egrets.
See Black Rhino Fact Sheet for more details about interspecies interaction.
May compete with other grazers, such as the wildebeest, warthog, zebra, and buffalo.

DIET & FEEDING
(Kingdon, 1997)(Owen-Smith, 1973)

Almost exclusively short grasses. A study of the southern subspecies showed that 95% of the diet was comprised of 12 species of plants; and 74% came from 4 species: Themeda triandra, Panicum maximum, P. coloratum, and Urochloa mossambicensis. Cymbopogon plurinodis, a coarse, odiferous grass, was consistently avoided. (Owen-Smith, 1973).
No incisors; uses upper lip to grasp grass against lower lip, pulling up to clip grass.
Crops grass close to ground -as short as 1 cm.
Does not chew cud as seen in other ruminants.
During the dry season when water is less available, water is only drunk every one to four days.

REPRODUCTION & DEVELOPMENT
(Owen-Smith,1973)(Pienaar, 1995)(Swaisgood, 2001)
Courtship

Territorial male non aggressive towards females during oestrus. Spend one to two weeks nearby to habituate female to his presence. Unlike the black rhino, little horn jousting occurs between male and female.
Territorial male tries to block female from leaving his territory, but if she gets past him, he will not follow. Therefore, there is little fighting between males for access to females.
Zululand, South Africa: only 40% of females mated in any given year, and territorial males mated only once or twice a year.
Subordinate males rarely mate with females.

Reproduction

First oestrus: 5 years
Oestrus cycle: ~ 30 days in the wild (Swaisgood, 2001), but see Managed Care
First parturition: 6.5 - 7 years
Inter-birth interval: 2-3 years

Gestation: 16 months

Life Stages
Birth

Litter size: 1
Up and about in three days.

Calves

Still dependent on the mother
Starts eating grass within a month
Weaning: for the most part in four weeks, but continues to nurse occasionally for about a year or more.

Adolescents

Independent of mother, but not sexually mature
Separation usually occurs after the birth of a new calf in two to three years.

Adult

Sexually mature- approximately 7 years in females and 10-12 years in males.

Longevity

Approximately 50 years.

Mortality

Lions may be a minor threat to calves.
No evidence of attacks by hyenas was observed by Owen-Smith (1973) in Umfolozi or Hluhluwe Game Reserves, although attacks have been recorded for black rhino calves.

DISEASES AND PATHOLOGY
(Owen-Smith, 1973)(Penzhorn, et al., 1995)

Parasites found on white rhinos: nematodes, trypanosomes, piroplasms, gyrostigmid fly larvae (bot flies), blood sucking flies (Rhinomusca dutoiti), and ticks.Dermal wounds, such as those often found on black rhinos (caused by microfilarial parasite) are not found on white rhinos of Zululand.

MANAGED CARE
(Emslie & Brooks, 1999)(Jones, 1991)(Roth & Brown, 1999)

In captivity it appears that the oestrus cycle lasts 30-35 days, 60-70 days, or a combination of long and short cycles.
San Diego Zoological Society

September, 1962: First pair of southern white rhinos at the San Diego Zoo. Obtained from Umfolozi Game Reserve, Zululand as part of a strategy to save the subspecies from extinction by breeding them in captivity.
February, 1971: First group (20) of southern white rhinos at the Wild Animal Park. Breeding was quite successful; between 1970 and 1990, there were more than 75 births.
October, 1972: First southern white rhino calf (named Zibulo) born at the Wild Animal Park.
San Diego Zoo is one of only two zoos in the world that has northern white rhinos (C. s. cottoni), first received in 1972. Captive breeding efforts have not been very successful at any zoo.

POPULATION AND CONSERVATION STATUS
(Emslie 2011) (Emslie & Brooks, 1999) (IRF, 2002)(Owen-Smith, 1973)
Population Status

Estimates from 2002
- Northern (C. s. cottoni): only 30 individuals remain
  - 1903: subspecies discovered; more numerous than southern subspecies, but much rarer than the black rhino.
  - 1960: 2,230
  - 1971: 650
  - 1981: <350
  - 1991-present: 30 animals; represents a 98.7% decline since 1960
- Southern (C. s. simum):
  - 1895: only one population of fewer than 100 animals left in the wild
  - 1929: 150
  - 1948: 550
  - 1968: 1,800
  - 1987: 4,665
  - 1997: 8,440 individuals in 247 populations
  - 2002: 11,640 individuals
  - 2010: Estimated 20,170 in wild, mainly in South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Kenya) (Emslie 2011)
ISIS captive population

Conservation

IUCN Status: Ceratotherium simum - Near Threatened
- C.s. cottoni (northern) CR = Critically Endangered
- C.s. simum (southern) NT = Near Threatened
CITES status:
- C. s. simum from South Africa, Appendix II
- all other populations of both subspecies, Appendix I
Southern white rhino recovery is one of the most remarkable conservation achievements. Down to fewer than 100 animals in South Africa, strict protections were put in place and the population grew. By 1961, individuals were being moved and reintroduced to other parts of southern Africa. Now it is the most numerous species of rhinoceros in the world.

Threats to survival

Refer to Black Rhino Fact Sheet. Use your browser's back button to return to this page.

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